Guidelines for writing JavaScript code examples

This section explains the general guidelines to keep in mind while writing JavaScript code examples. The later sections will cover more specific details.

Opinions on correct indentation, whitespace, and line lengths have always been controversial. Discussions on these topics are a distraction from creating and maintaining content.

On MDN Web Docs, we use Prettier as a code formatter to keep the code style consistent (and to avoid off-topic discussions). You can consult our configuration file to learn about the current rules, and read the Prettier documentation.

Prettier formats all the code and keeps the style consistent. Nevertheless, there are a few additional rules that you need to follow.

You can use new features once every major browser — Chrome, Edge, Firefox, and Safari — supports them.

For creating arrays, use literals and not constructors.

Create arrays like this:

const visitedCities = [];

Don't do this while creating arrays:

const visitedCities = new Array(length);

When adding items to an array, use push() and not direct assignment. Consider the following array:

const pets = [];

Add items to the array like this:

pets.push("cat");

Don't add items to the array like this:

pets[pets.length] = "cat";

Writing asynchronous code improves performance and should be used when possible. In particular, you can use:

• Promises
• async/await

When both techniques are possible, we prefer using the simpler async/await syntax. Unfortunately, you can't use await at the top level unless you are in an ECMAScript module. CommonJS modules used by Node.js are not ES modules. If your example is intended to be used everywhere, avoid top-level await.

Comments are critical to writing good code examples. They clarify the intent of the code and help developers understand it. Pay special attention to them.

• If the purpose or logic of the code isn't obvious, add a comment with your intention, as shown below:

  js

  let total = 0;
  
  // Calculate the sum of the four first elements of arr
  for (let i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
    total += arr[i];
  }
  

  On the other hand, restating the code in prose is not a good use of comments:

  js

  let total = 0;
  
  // For loop from 1 to 4
  for (let i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
    // Add value to the total
    total += arr[i];
  }
  

• Comments are also not necessary when functions have explicit names that describe what they're doing. Write:

  js

  closeConnection();
  

  Don't write:

  js

  closeConnection(); // Closing the connection
  

Single-line comments are marked with //, as opposed to block comments enclosed between /* … */.

In general, use single-line comments to comment code. Writers must mark each line of the comment with //, so that it's easier to notice commented-out code visually. In addition, this convention allows to comment out sections of code using /* … */ while debugging.

• Leave a space between the slashes and the comment. Start with a capital letter, like a sentence, but don't end the comment with a period.

  js

  // This is a well-written single-line comment
  

• If a comment doesn't start immediately after a new indentation level, add an empty line and then add the comment. It will create a code block, making it obvious what the comment refers to. Also, put your comments on separate lines preceding the code they are referring to. This is shown in the following example:

  js

  function checkout(goodsPrice, shipmentPrice, taxes) {
    // Calculate the total price
    const total = goodsPrice + shipmentPrice + taxes;
  
    // Create and append a new paragraph to the document
    const para = document.createElement("p");
    para.textContent = `Total price is ${total}`;
    document.body.appendChild(para);
  }
  

• In code intended to run in a production environment, you rarely need to comment when you log some data. In code examples, we often use console.log(), console.error(), or similar functions to output important values. To help the reader understand what will happen without running the code, you can put a comment after the function with the log that will be produced. Write:

  js

  function exampleFunc(fruitBasket) {
    console.log(fruitBasket); // ['banana', 'mango', 'orange']
  }
  

  Don't write:

  js

  function exampleFunc(fruitBasket) {
    // Logs: ['banana', 'mango', 'orange']
    console.log(fruitBasket);
  }
  

• In case the line becomes too long, put the comment after the function, like this:

  js

  function exampleFunc(fruitBasket) {
    console.log(fruitBasket);
    // ['banana', 'mango', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'durian', 'lemon']
  }
  

Short comments are usually better, so try to keep them in one line of 60–80 characters. If this is not possible, use // at the beginning of each line:

// This is an example of a multi-line comment.
// The imaginary function that follows has some unusual
// limitations that I want to call out.
// Limitation 1
// Limitation 2

Don't use /* … */:

/* This is an example of a multi-line comment.
  The imaginary function that follows has some unusual
  limitations that I want to call out.
  Limitation 1
  Limitation 2 */

Skipping redundant code using ellipses (…) is necessary to keep examples short. Still, writers should do it thoughtfully as developers frequently copy & paste examples into their code, and all of our code samples should be valid JavaScript.

In JavaScript, you should put the ellipses (…) in a comment. When possible, indicate what action somebody reusing this snippet is expected to add.

Using a comment for the ellipses (…) is more explicit, preventing errors when a developer copies and pastes a sample code. Write:

function exampleFunc() {
  // Add your code here
  // …
}

Don't use ellipses (…) like this:

function exampleFunc() {
  …
}

When writing code, you usually omit parameters you don't need. But in some code examples, you want to demonstrate that you didn't use some possible parameters.

To do so, use /* … */ in the parameter list. This is an exception to the rule to only use single-line comments (//).

array.forEach((value /* , index, array */) => {
  // …
});

For function names, use camel case, starting with a lowercase character. Use concise, human-readable, and semantic names where appropriate.

The following is a correct example of a function name:

function sayHello() {
  console.log("Hello!");
}

Don't use function names like these:

function SayHello() {
  console.log("Hello!");
}

function doIt() {
  console.log("Hello!");
}

• Where possible, use the function declaration over function expressions to define functions. Here is the recommended way to declare a function:

  js

  function sum(a, b) {
    return a + b;
  }
  

  This is not a good way to define a function:

  js

  let sum = function (a, b) {
    return a + b;
  };
  

• When using anonymous functions as a callback (a function passed to another method invocation), if you do not need to access this, use an arrow function to make the code shorter and cleaner. Here is the recommended way:

  js

  const array1 = [1, 2, 3, 4];
  const sum = array1.reduce((a, b) => a + b);
  

  Instead of this:

  js

  const array1 = [1, 2, 3, 4];
  const sum = array1.reduce(function (a, b) {
    return a + b;
  });
  

• Consider avoiding using arrow function to assign a function to an identifier. In particular, don't use arrow functions for methods. Use function declarations with the keyword function:

  js

  function x() {
    // …
  }
  

  Don't do:

  js

  const x = () => {
    // …
  };
  

• When using arrow functions, use implicit return (also known as concise body) when possible:

  js

  arr.map((e) => e.id);
  

  And not:

  js

  arr.map((e) => {
    return e.id;
  });
  

When loops are required, choose the appropriate one from for(;;), for...of, while, etc.

• When iterating through all collection elements, avoid using the classical for (;;) loop; prefer for...of or forEach(). Note that if you are using a collection that is not an Array, you have to check that for...of is actually supported (it requires the variable to be iterable), or that the forEach() method is actually present. Use for...of:

  js

  const dogs = ["Rex", "Lassie"];
  for (const dog of dogs) {
    console.log(dog);
  }
  

  Or forEach():

  js

  const dogs = ["Rex", "Lassie"];
  dogs.forEach((dog) => {
    console.log(dog);
  });
  

  Do not use for (;;) — not only do you have to add an extra index, i, but you also have to track the length of the array. This can be error-prone for beginners.

  js

  const dogs = ["Rex", "Lassie"];
  for (let i = 0; i < dogs.length; i++) {
    console.log(dogs[i]);
  }
  

• Make sure that you define the initializer properly by using the const keyword for for...of or let for the other loops. Don't omit it. These are correct examples:

  js

  const cats = ["Athena", "Luna"];
  for (const cat of cats) {
    console.log(cat);
  }
  
  for (let i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
    result += arr[i];
  }
  

  The example below does not follow the recommended guidelines for the initialization (it implicitly creates a global variable and will fail in strict mode):

  js

  const cats = ["Athena", "Luna"];
  for (i of cats) {
    console.log(i);
  }
  

• When you need to access both the value and the index, you can use .forEach() instead of for (;;). Write:

  js

  const gerbils = ["Zoé", "Chloé"];
  gerbils.forEach((gerbil, i) => {
    console.log(`Gerbil #${i}: ${gerbil}`);
  });
  

  Do not write:

  js

  const gerbils = ["Zoé", "Chloé"];
  for (let i = 0; i < gerbils.length; i++) {
    console.log(`Gerbil #${i}: ${gerbils[i]}`);
  }
  

There is one notable case to keep in mind for the if...else control statements. If the if statement ends with a return, do not add an else statement.

Continue right after the if statement. Write:

if (test) {
  // Perform something if test is true
  // …
  return;
}

// Perform something if test is false
// …

Do not write:

if (test) {
  // Perform something if test is true
  // …
  return;
} else {
  // Perform something if test is false
  // …
}

While control flow statements like if, for, and while don't require the use of braces when the content is made of one single statement, you should always use braces. Write:

for (const car of storedCars) {
  car.paint("red");
}

Don't write:

for (const car of storedCars) car.paint("red");

This prevent forgetting to add the braces when adding more statements.

Switch statements can be a little tricky.

• Don't add a break statement after a return statement in a specific case. Instead, write return statements like this:

  js

  switch (species) {
    case "chicken":
      return farm.shed;
    case "horse":
      return corral.entry;
    default:
      return "";
  }
  

  If you add a break statement, it will be unreachable. Do not write:

  js

  switch (species) {
    case "chicken":
      return farm.shed;
      break;
    case "horse":
      return corral.entry;
      break;
    default:
      return "";
  }
  

• Use default as the last case, and don't end it with a break statement. If you need to do it differently, add a comment explaining why.
• Remember that when you declare a local variable for a case, you need to use braces to define a scope:

  js

  switch (fruits) {
    case "Orange": {
      const slice = fruit.slice();
      eat(slice);
      break;
    }
    case "Apple": {
      const core = fruit.extractCore();
      recycle(core);
      break;
    }
  }
  

• If certain states of your program throw uncaught errors, they will halt execution and potentially reduce the usefulness of the example. You should, therefore, catch errors using a try...catch block, as shown below:

  js

  try {
    console.log(getResult());
  } catch (e) {
    console.error(e);
  }
  

• When you don't need the parameter of the catch statement, omit it:

  js

  try {
    console.log(getResult());
  } catch {
    console.error("An error happened!");
  }
  

• When defining a class, use PascalCase (starting with a capital letter) for the class name and camelCase (starting with a lowercase letter) for the object property and method names.
• When defining an object instance, either a literal or via a constructor, use camelCase, starting with lower-case character, for the instance name. For example:

  js

  const hanSolo = new Person("Han Solo", 25, "he/him");
  
  const luke = {
    name: "Luke Skywalker",
    age: 25,
    pronouns: "he/him",
  };
  

For creating general objects (i.e., when classes are not involved), use literals and not constructors.

For example, do this:

const object = {};

Don't create a general object like this:

const object = new Object();

• Use ES class syntax for objects, not old-style constructors. For example, this is the recommended way:

  js

  class Person {
    constructor(name, age, pronouns) {
      this.name = name;
      this.age = age;
      this.pronouns = pronouns;
    }
  
    greeting() {
      console.log(`Hi! I'm ${this.name}`);
    }
  }
  

• Use extends for inheritance:

  js

  class Teacher extends Person {
    // …
  }
  

To define methods, use the method definition syntax:

const obj = {
  foo() {
    // …
  },
  bar() {
    // …
  },
};

Instead of:

const obj = {
  foo: function () {
    // …
  },
  bar: function () {
    // …
  },
};

• The Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty() method has been deprecated in favor of Object.hasOwn().
• When possible, use the shorthand avoiding the duplication of the property identifier. Write:

  js

  function createObject(name, age) {
    return { name, age };
  }
  

  Don't write:

  js

  function createObject(name, age) {
    return { name: name, age: age };
  }
  

This section lists our recommendations of which operators to use and when.

When you want to store to a variable a literal value depending on a condition, use a conditional (ternary) operator instead of an if...else statement. This rule also applies when returning a value. Write:

const x = condition ? 1 : 2;

Do not write:

let x;
if (condition) {
  x = 1;
} else {
  x = 2;
}

The conditional operator is helpful when creating strings to log information. In such cases, using a regular if...else statement leads to long blocks of code for a side operation like logging, obfuscating the central point of the example.

Prefer the strict equality (triple equals) and inequality operators over the loose equality (double equals) and inequality operators.

Use the strict equality and inequality operators like this:

name === "Shilpa";
age !== 25;

Don't use the loose equality and inequality operators, as shown below:

name == "Shilpa";
age != 25;

If you need to use == or !=, remember that == null is the only acceptable case. As TypeScript will fail on all other cases, we don't want to have them in our example code. Consider adding a comment to explain why you need it.

Prefer shortcuts for boolean tests. For example, use if (x) and if (!x), not if (x === true) and if (x === false), unless different kinds of truthy or falsy values are handled differently.

String literals can be enclosed within single quotes, as in 'A string', or within double quotes, as in "A string". Don't worry about which one to use; Prettier keeps it consistent.

For inserting values into strings, use template literals.

• Here is an example of the recommended way to use template literals. Their use prevents a lot of spacing errors.

  js

  const name = "Shilpa";
  console.log(`Hi! I'm ${name}!`);
  

  Don't concatenate strings like this:

  js

  const name = "Shilpa";
  console.log("Hi! I'm" + name + "!"); // Hi! I'mShilpa!
  

• Don't overuse template literals. If there are no substitutions, use a normal string literal instead.

Good variable names are essential to understanding code.

• Use short identifiers, and avoid non-common abbreviations. Good variable names are usually between 3 to 10-character long, but as a hint only. For example, accelerometer is more descriptive than abbreviating to acclmtr for the sake of character length.
• Try to use real-world relevant examples where each variable has clear semantics. Only fall back to placeholder names like foo and bar when the example is simple and contrived.
• Do not use the Hungarian notation naming convention. Do not prefix the variable name with its type. For example, write bought = car.buyer !== null rather than bBought = oCar.sBuyer != null or name = "John Doe" instead of sName = "John Doe".
• For collections, avoid adding the type such as list, array, queue in the name. Use the content name in the plural form. For example, for an array of cars, use cars and not carArray or carList. There may be exceptions, like when you want to show the abstract form of a feature without the context of a particular application.
• For primitive values, use camelCase, starting with a lowercase character. Do not use _. Use concise, human-readable, and semantic names where appropriate. For example, use currencyName rather than currency_name.
• Avoid using articles and possessives. For example, use car instead of myCar or aCar. There may be exceptions, like when describing a feature in general without a practical context.
• Use variable names as shown here:

  js

  const playerScore = 0;
  const speed = distance / time;
  

  Don't name variables like this:

  js

  const thisIsaveryLONGVariableThatRecordsPlayerscore345654 = 0;
  const s = d / t;
  

When declaring variables and constants, use the let and const keywords, not var. The following examples show what's recommended and what's not on MDN Web Docs:

• If a variable will not be reassigned, prefer const, like so:

  js

  const name = "Shilpa";
  console.log(name);
  

• If you'll change the value of a variable, use let as shown below:

  js

  let age = 40;
  age++;
  console.log("Happy birthday!");
  

• The example below uses let where it should be const. The code will work, but we want to avoid this usage in MDN Web Docs code examples.

  js

  let name = "Shilpa";
  console.log(name);
  

• The example below uses const for a variable that gets reassigned. The reassignment will throw an error.

  js

  const age = 40;
  age++;
  console.log("Happy birthday!");
  

• The example below uses var, polluting the global scope:

  js

  var age = 40;
  var name = "Shilpa";
  

• Declare one variable per line, like so:

  js

  let var1;
  let var2;
  let var3 = "Apapou";
  let var4 = var3;
  

  Do not declare multiple variables in one line, separating them with commas or using chain declaration. Avoid declaring variables like this:

  js

  let var1, var2;
  let var3 = var4 = "Apapou"; // var4 is implicitly created as a global variable; fails in strict mode
  

Avoid implicit type coercions. In particular, avoid +val to force a value to a number and "" + val to force it to a string. Use Number() and String(), without new, instead. Write:

class Person {
  #name;
  #birthYear;

  constructor(name, year) {
    this.#name = String(name);
    this.#birthYear = Number(year);
  }
}

Don't write:

class Person {
  #name;
  #birthYear;

  constructor(name, year) {
    this.#name = "" + name;
    this.#birthYear = +year;
  }
}

In addition to these JavaScript language features, we recommend a few guidelines related to Web APIs to keep in mind.

If all major browsers (Chrome, Edge, Firefox, and Safari) support a feature, don't prefix the feature. Write:

const context = new AudioContext();

Avoid the added complexity of prefixes. Don't write:

const AudioContext = window.AudioContext || window.webkitAudioContext;
const context = new AudioContext();

The same rule applies to CSS prefixes.

When a method, a property, or a whole interface is deprecated, do not use it (outside its documentation). Instead, use the modern API.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of Web APIs to avoid and what to replace them with:

• Use fetch() instead of XHR (XMLHttpRequest).
• Use AudioWorklet instead of ScriptProcessorNode, in the Web Audio API.

• Do not use Element.innerHTML to insert purely textual content into an element; use Node.textContent instead. The property innerHTML leads to security problems if a developer doesn't control the parameter. The more we as writers avoid using it, the fewer security flaws are created when a developer copies and pastes our code. The example below demonstrates the use of textContent.

  js

  const text = "Hello to all you good people";
  const para = document.createElement("p");
  para.textContent = text;
  

  Don't use innerHTML to insert pure text into DOM nodes.

  js

  const text = "Hello to all you good people";
  const para = document.createElement("p");
  para.innerHTML = text;
  

• The alert() function is unreliable. It doesn't work in live examples on MDN Web Docs that are inside an <iframe>. Moreover, it is modal to the whole window, which is annoying. In static code examples, use console.log() or console.error(). In live examples, avoid console.log() and console.error() because they are not displayed. Use a dedicated UI element.

• When logging a message, use console.log().
• When logging an error, use console.error().

JavaScript language reference - browse through our JavaScript reference pages to check out some good, concise, meaningful JavaScript snippets.